连岳的第八大洲

1 - 常常过来看你的blog，今天没有想到可以座沙发！ (Comment this)

2 - 连岳的沙发可是史上最容易坐的沙发，你差不多定点来就行了。 (Comment this)

3 - 用醉酒后车逆向停在上海高架上睡觉的毛威兄的话来说：喝酒不开车。 (Comment this)

4 - 连岳先生您好，转篇文章给你，并送给G K们

Why it's so hard to be happy

By Michael Wiederman

What would make you happier? Perhaps
a bigger house or a better car; a sexier or
more understanding mate; surely, wealth
and fame. Or maybe you would simply be
happy with finishing everything on your to-do
list. Well, stop deluding yourself. Psychological
research suggests that none of these
things is very likely to increase your
happiness significantly.

Despite being far better off financially than previous
generations, we are no happier.

Some people are
naturally happier
than others,
thanks mainly to
genetic differences.
Happy people
tend to be extroverted
and to have
a feeling of
personal control
over their lives.

Take money, for example. Using data from the
2000 U.S. Census, David G. Myers documented
an interesting discrepancy between wealth and
happiness. Myers, a psychologist at Hope College
in Holland, Mich., found that the buying power
of the average American had tripled since 1950.
So were Americans three times happier in 2000
than 50 years earlier?
The National Opinion Research Center at the
University of Chicago has asked Americans to
rate their level of happiness in surveys that have
been conducted most years since 1957. When
Myers compared these surveys with the economic
data, he found that the proportion of Americans
who describe themselves as “very happy”
has remained remarkably stable at about one
third. Despite being far better off financially than
previous generations, we are no happier.

In fact, young Americans are more anxious
than in the past. In 2000 Jean M. Twenge, a psychologist
now at San Diego State University, published
a sweeping analysis of 269 studies conducted
between 1952 and 1993—all of which
had measured the anxiety levels of children or
college students. When Twenge correlated the
measurements with the dates of the studies, she
found a strong linear increase in reported anxiety
over time. The average American child in the
1980s reported more anxiety than child psychiatric
patients of the 1950s.
Psychologists have long studied anxiety and
depression, but in recent years they have also begun
exploring the nature of what makes humans
happy. The field of “positive psychology” is now
a burgeoning one, and its results have led to some
surprising conclusions. There is a growing body
w w w. s c i ammi n d . c om S C I E N T I F I C A M E R I C A N M I N D 39
of evidence that happiness is not something that
can be achieved by hard work or good luck. The
happiest people seem to be those who are fully
engaged in the present, rather than focused on
future goals. What can we do to increase the likelihood
of being happy? The answers may lie in
our biological past.
Thanks for the Inheritance
When evolutionary psychologists notice a
universal aspect of how people perceive the
world, they make an assumption: that slice of
human nature must have been adaptive for our
distant ancestors. During our long evolutionary
history, we passed certain characteristics to the
next generation when the individuals who possessed
them were more likely to survive and have
offspring. Other ways of reacting to the world
were weeded out, because the individuals who
possessed brains wired to respond in those ways
were less likely to survive or have offspring.
What does natural selection have to do with
happiness? We humans have inherited a remarkable
capacity to habituate to, or become accustomed
to, the status quo. Habituation is wonderfully
adaptive when we are faced with adverse
conditions, such as chronic noise or a permanent
disability. After a while, we may no longer even
notice these unpleasant circumstances. Unfortunately,
habituation applies to positive aspects of
our lives as well. No matter how pleasant an experience
is at first, if it becomes a constant, we
habituate to it.
We have also inherited a tendency to notice
the negative more readily than the positive. Those
early Homo sapiens who were most sensitive to
negative changes in the environment were probably
most likely to survive, because negative
changes may have signaled danger. Like our distant
relatives, we, too, have brains that are wired
to notice trouble. So the natural human condition
is to take positive experiences for granted
and to focus on the bothersome aspects of life.
Last, one other aspect of human nature helps
to prevent us from being satisfied: that little voice
inside our head that often convinces us that our
life would be better if only we possessed or
accomplished something else. It is easy to see
how early humans who were never quite satisfied
would have had an advantage over their more
easily satisfied peers. That nagging voice of
dissatisfaction would have prompted our ancestors
to strive for a bit more and then a bit more
after that.
Today we all share a certain set of human
characteristics that prime us to be on a perpetual
search for a better life. But that does not explain
why some people seem to be happier than others.
We might assume that happy people are those
who have finally achieved the good life. Psychologists,
however, have learned that happiness
is more closely tied to personality than to life
experiences.
The Power of Personality
Personality differs from human nature in that
it varies across individuals. At the same time,
personality is relatively stable across each person’s
lifetime. Events come and go, but our traits
and habitual ways of responding remain.
When it comes to happiness, events influence
how we feel, at least in the short run. Winning
the lottery is liable to prompt even the most cynical
individual to experience a sudden spike in
happiness. Still, people habituate to the way
things are and fall back to their personal baseline
level of happiness. It is this inherent baseline, or
set point, of happiness that is an aspect of personality.
So why do different people have different
set points for happiness?
A study of twins published in 1996 points to
the answer. Researchers Auke Tellegen and the
late David Lykken of the University of Minnesota
compared the similarity in happiness scores
among sets of identical and fraternal twins who
grew up together or were reared apart. These
comparisons enabled the researchers to determine
the degree to which variations in happiness
are related to variations in our genes. They found
that about 80 percent of the variation in happiness
among individuals was attributable to genetic
differences.
When most people hear the word “genetic,”
they tend to think “passed from parents to offspring.”
In this case, however, “genetic” refers to
a characteristic arising from the novel way genes
come together to form each unique individual.
This fact explains why traits that have a strong
genetic component may still vary widely between
parents and their children or between siblings.
Unless an individual has an identical twin, that
person is truly one of a kind genetically.
The notion that each of us has an inherent
baseline of happiness—largely determined by our
genes—has important implications when com-
w w w. s c i ammi n d . c om S C I E N T I F I C A M E R I C A N M I N D 41
bined with our shared human nature. The tendency
to habituate to the status quo explains
why, no matter what happens in our lives, we
tend to return to our own individual set point of
satisfaction with life.
Psychologists have discovered a number of
personality traits that seem to be common in
people with high set points of happiness. In a
1998 paper, social psychologist Kristina DeNeve
of Baylor University (now at Creighton University)
and psychologist Harris Cooper of the University
of Missouri–Columbia (now at Duke
University) reviewed 148 studies of the relation
between personality and happiness. Perhaps not
surprisingly, they found that people who reported
being happier also reported being more extroverted,
friendly, trusting and conscientious. Happier
people were also more likely to believe they
had control over their lives and were less prone
to anxiety and mood swings.
The personality traits associated with happiness
seem to be characteristics that are also related
to personal success and achievement. Can
happiness (or at least satisfaction) be won
through hard work and determination? After all,
isn’t that the core belief underlying the American
dream?
Goals + Achievement = Happiness?
American capitalism rests on the assumption
that we can achieve or buy happiness, a belief
that fuels competition and consumerism. The research
showing a lack of correlation between
wealth and happiness casts doubt on this assumption.
But competing for wealth is more than
just an unproductive way to achieve happiness; it
is a recipe for unhappiness.
Psychologists refer to our tendency to compare
ourselves with those who are better off as
“upward comparison,” and it is known to engender
dissatisfaction. Using data from U.S. surveys
conducted by the National Opinion Research
Center between 1989 and 1996, Michael R.
Hagerty of the Graduate School of Management
at the University of California, Davis, studied the
relation between happiness and the distribution
of wealth in one’s community. He found that the
greater the income disparity within a community,
the less its residents were satisfied with their
lives. Analyzing data from the U.S. and seven
other nations collected between 1972 and 1994,
Hagerty found that as the inequality of income
lessened within a particular country, the average
level of life satisfaction increased.
It seems that when we are aware that others
are better off than we are, our own satisfaction
suffers. Conversely, downward comparison (to
those who are worse off than we are) tends to
make us more appreciative and satisfied. The bad
news? Upward comparison seems to come more
naturally, a tendency that may be fueled by the
mass media.
Even when we are not competing directly
with others, our tendency to link happiness to
the achievement of goals is counterproductive.
Although more research is needed, psychologists
William D. McIntosh of Georgia Southern University
and Leonard L. Martin of the University
of Georgia have theorized that people who re-
peatedly focus on attaining goals are less likely
to be happy.
We might think of each person as falling
somewhere along a continuum of linking happiness
with goal attainment: from “nonlinker” to
“strong linker.” McIntosh and Martin say the
problem with being a strong linker is the tendency
to then be obsessively focused on meeting
specific goals. Because of the belief that happiness
depends on reaching those goals, strong linkers
tend to experience anxiety and pressure as long
as the goals remain unmet. They believe that
happiness will be attained only at some future
point. But what about when their goal is finally
achieved?
After cherished goals are realized, habituation
takes over, and strong linkers return to their
previous baseline level of happiness just like everyone
else. But when a strong linker realizes that
his or her level of happiness has not permanently
changed, the person typically concludes that happiness
lies just over the next horizon.
Psychologists have found that we humans are
good at deceiving ourselves about the future. We
tend to believe that our prospects for increased
happiness are better than our current circumstances.
This tendency is nurtured by the media
and advertising, which promise greater satisfaction
with certain purchases or successes. People
who persist as strong linkers tend to choose new
goals, convinced that this time they have found
the “real” path to happiness.
The choice to continue to link happiness to
achievement of goals may be bolstered by observation.
Doesn’t it seem that successful people are
happier? Research supports such a connection,
but not in the way we usually assume.
In 2005 Sonja Lyubomirsky, a psychologist at
the University of California, Riverside, and her
colleagues reviewed the results of studies showing
a positive correlation between happiness and
success. They also examined longitudinal studies—
in which happiness was measured both before
and after some specific success—as well as
experiments in which pleasant, neutral or negative
feelings were induced in participants before
the start of some task. In both types of research,
happiness and positive mood were important as
precursors to success. Happy people were not
necessarily happier after their success than they
were before, but they tended to be happier than
others who were less successful.
Lyubomirsky concluded that success is related
to happiness—but as a consequence, not a cause,
of mood. The most likely explanation is that happy
people have other personality traits that facilitate
success. Also, a positive mood is liable to
result in greater motivation, as well as cooperation
from others. But how can you achieve happiness
(and the success that comes with it) if your
personality is not naturally sunny?
Go with the Flow
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, a psychologist at
Claremont Graduate University, has concluded
that the people who tend to be happier are those
who report experiencing what he calls “flow.”
Csikszentmihalyi coined the term in a 1975 book
that was based on hundreds of interviews. He has
since published several other books on flow,
which he defines as experiences that are inherently
interesting and motivating for an individual
because he or she becomes totally absorbed in
them. That is not to say that flow experiences
have to be fun (although frequently they are) but
rather that flow involves being fully engaged. The
task at hand is not too boring or too frustrating;
it is sufficiently challenging to require one’s full
attention.
By incorporating the notion of flow, Western
psychology has embraced the Eastern concept of
mindfulness, which requires its practitioners to
be nonjudgmental and conscious only of the present—
immersed in what is happening right now.
Unfortunately, this state of mind is not the norm
for most of us; it is a skill that requires practice—
through meditation, for example.
Why do people who report experiencing more
flow also tend to be happier? Prominent psychologists,
from Carl Rogers to Fritz Perls, describe
psychological health as living in the present moment.
Perhaps the link between happiness and
flow has to do with the fact that flow experiences
demand complete attention to the present. When
we are totally engaged in what we are doing right
now, it is impossible to focus on the past or future
or to feel self-conscious—all of which tend to undermine
satisfaction with life.
The growing body of research on happiness
does not point to any easy answers. The roots
of happiness are tangled, but understanding
the inherent ways that our minds work does afford
us the chance to make better choices about
how we will invest our effort and time in the pursuit
of happiness. Research from psychology
seems to support what so many nonpsychologists
have said before: happiness is not an ultimate
destination but instead lies in appreciation of
the journey.


1 DO NOT FOCUS ON GOALS. Even though you may intellectually
reject the idea that happiness can be achieved or bought,
you must be constantly vigilant against that internal voice that
whispers, “But I would be a bit happier if only ...” One strategy
to try is to reflect on those times when you were convinced that
a certain accomplishment or possession would bring greater
happiness, yet your life was not significantly different after you
reached your goal. How many times have you had this experience?
How many more are needed to finally convince you that it
does not work that way?
2 MAKE TIME TO VOLUNTEER. People who volunteer to help
those in need tend to report being happier. Perhaps it is because
working with those less fortunate makes you grateful for what
you have. Also, volunteering often brings satisfaction and selfesteem,
because you feel engaged in worthwhile work and are
appreciated by those you serve. Do not compare yourself with
others who seem better off than you are, because that usually
results in dissatisfaction.
3 PRACTICE MODERATION. If you grow too accustomed to
pleasurable things, they will no longer bring you happiness. For
example, you may enjoy two or three short vacations more than
one long one. And you will enjoy your favorite meal more if you
reserve it for a special occasion.
4 STRIVE FOR CONTENTMENT. Rethink your beliefs about the
nature of happiness. Experiences of great pleasure or joy stand
out in memory, and it is easy to conclude that being truly happy
means being in that state most or all of the time. The very reason
you savor and remember such an experience, however, is because
it is not the norm. Instead of equating happiness with
peak experiences, you would do better to think of happiness as
a state of contentment and relative lack of anxiety or regret.
5 PRACTICE LIVING IN THE MOMENT. Start small by focusing
on your sensory experience while engaged in a routine task. Over
time, spend less energy thinking about the past or the future.

About 80 percent of the variation in happiness among
individuals was attributable to genetic differences.

Happy people
tend to engage in
activities that are
challenging and
absorbing. Such
activities, dubbed
“flow” experiences,
force people to
focus their full
attention on the
present moment.

Trying to keep up
with the Joneses?
Psychologists warn
against comparing
yourself with
others who are
more fortunate.

People who link
happiness with
goal achievement
are setting
themselves up for
trouble. Unmet
goals can cause
anxiety, and
fulfilled goals are
quickly forgotten.

(The Author)
MICHAEL WIEDERMAN is associate professor of psychology at Columbia
College, an all-women’s liberal arts college in South Carolina. He founded
Mindful Publications, LLC (www.mindingthemind.com), a business that
offers products and services that bridge the gap between psychology and
individual consumers.

COPYRIGHT 2007 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC. (Comment this)